<html>
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8">
<style type="text/css" style="display:none;"> P {margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;} </style>
</head>
<body dir="ltr">
<div class="elementToProof" style="font-family: Aptos, Aptos_EmbeddedFont, Aptos_MSFontService, Calibri, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">
Hi, Jeff,</div>
<div class="elementToProof" style="font-family: Aptos, Aptos_EmbeddedFont, Aptos_MSFontService, Calibri, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">
<br>
</div>
<div class="elementToProof" style="font-family: Aptos, Aptos_EmbeddedFont, Aptos_MSFontService, Calibri, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">
Tom Caudell and I thought our 2018 paper</div>
<div class="elementToProof" style="font-family: Aptos, Aptos_EmbeddedFont, Aptos_MSFontService, Calibri, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">
<br>
</div>
<div id="appendonsend"></div>
<p class="elementToProof" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 18px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Michael J. Healy, Thomas P. Caudell (2018). Local and distributed concept representation via colimits: An example.
Neurocomputing 314, pp. 284--298. </span></p>
<p class="elementToProof" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 18px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><br>
</span></p>
<p class="elementToProof" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 18px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">did a fair job of formalizing this entire argument. We showed with an argument based upon category theory that
concept representations are both local and distributed. We showed that concepts can be calculated as colimits of diagrams in a category of theories. Each concept is mapped to a ''node'' in a neural network, and the arrows in the diagram (theory morphisms)
are represented by connections. The colimit is a cocone over the diagram as explained in the paper. The neural structure exists in a separate, ''neural'' category representing mathematically the structure of a neural network. A node can consist of a single
neuron or a ''clique'' of interconnected cells.</span></p>
<p class="elementToProof" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 18px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><br>
</span></p>
<p class="elementToProof" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 18px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">The mapping of theories and morphisms to a neural category, the colimits, and other structures are described more
fully in some of our other papers, some of which are </span></p>
<p class="elementToProof" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 18px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><br>
</span></p>
<p class="elementToProof" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 18px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Michael J. Healy, Thomas P. Caudell (2019). Episodic memory: A hierarchy of spatiotemporal concepts. Neural
Networks, Volume 120, December 2019, Pages 40-57.</span></p>
<p class="elementToProof" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 18px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><br>
</span></p>
<p class="elementToProof" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 18px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Michael J. Healy, Richard D. Olinger, Robert J. Young, Shawn E. Taylor, Thomas Caudell, and Kurt W. Larson (2009).
Applying category theory to improve the performance of a neural architecture. Neurocomputing 72, pp. 3158—3173.</span></p>
<p style="line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 22px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 18px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><br>
</span></p>
<p class="elementToProof" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 18px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Michael J. Healy, Thomas P. Caudell (2006). Ontologies and worlds in category theory: Implications for neural systems.
Axiomathes 16, pp.165–214.</span></p>
<p class="elementToProof" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 18px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><br>
</span></p>
<p class="elementToProof" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 18px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Respectfully,</span></p>
<p class="elementToProof" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 18px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Mike</span></p>
<p class="elementToProof" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 18px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </span></p>
<hr style="display: inline-block; width: 98%;">
<div dir="ltr" id="divRplyFwdMsg" class="elementToProof"><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><b>From:</b> Conne ctionists <connectionists-bounces@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu> on behalf of Jeffrey Bowers <J.Bowers@bristol.ac.uk><br>
</span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr;"><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><b>Sent:</b> Sunday, February 25, 2024 9:26 AM<br>
<b>To:</b> Danny Silver <danny.silver@acadiau.ca>; Grossberg, Stephen <steve@bu.edu>; KENTRIDGE, ROBERT W. <robert.kentridge@durham.ac.uk>; Gary Marcus <gary.marcus@nyu.edu>; Laurent Mertens <laurent.mertens@kuleuven.be><br>
<b>Cc:</b> connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu <connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu><br>
<b>Subject:</b> Re: Connectionists: Early history of symbolic and neural network approaches to AI</span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr;"> </div>
<table align="left" style="display: table; width: 100%; table-layout: fixed; border-collapse: collapse; border-spacing: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="background-color: rgb(166, 166, 166); padding: 7px 2px; vertical-align: middle; width: 1px;">
</td>
<td style="text-align: left; background-color: rgb(234, 234, 234); padding: 7px 5px 7px 15px; vertical-align: middle; color: rgb(33, 33, 33); width: 100%;">
<div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: wf_segoe-ui_normal, "Segoe UI", "Segoe WP", Tahoma, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Some people who received this message don't often get email from j.bowers@bristol.ac.uk.
<a href="https://aka.ms/LearnAboutSenderIdentification" data-auth="NotApplicable" id="OWAfd135a4e-a1c4-8420-2040-86ae7fd7e422" class="OWAAutoLink" data-loopstyle="linkonly">
Learn why this is important</a></span></div>
</td>
<td align="left" style="background-color: rgb(234, 234, 234); padding: 7px 5px; vertical-align: middle; color: rgb(33, 33, 33); width: 75px;">
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p style="line-height: 12pt; background-color: rgb(255, 102, 102); margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">
<span style="color: white;"><b> [EXTERNAL]</b></span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Hi Danny, again, this is defining grandmother cells in a narrow way that they are easily dismissed, and the objections you cite have been discussed in
detail in many papers in the past. Grossberg has already addressed some of your points, but let me just briefly comment on the first – the worry that damage to neurons is problematic for grandmother cells as there needs to be redundancy. This leads you to
conclude distributed representations are necessary. </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">But there is nothing about redundancy that is inconsistent with grandmother cells. I consider this in detail in Bowers (2009) Psychological Review paper
I referred to before, and here is just one brief quote from the paper:</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">“But more important, even if it is granted that individual neurons are not sufficiently reliable to code for high-level perceptual tasks, it does not follow
that some form of population code is required. Instead, all that is required is (again) redundant grandmother cells that code for the same stimulus. If one neuron fails to respond to the stimulus on a given trial due to noise, another one (or many) equivalent
ones will, in what Barlow (1995) called “probability summation.”</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Indeed, ART can learn redundant grandmother cells, based on the vigilance parameter. If it set to the limit, the model effectively learns a localist grandmother
cell each time a word or a face is encoded (and instance theory).</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">The problem with so quickly dismissing grandmother cells is that researchers then reject out of hand important models like ART. I first got interested
in the topic as researchers would just reject all sorts of models in psychology because they did not include distributed representations like those learned in the PDP models of the time. And researchers are so sure of themselves that they do not even consider
entire classes of models, or read critiques that address all the standard points people make regarding grandmother cells.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Jeff</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<div id="x_mail-editor-reference-message-container">
<div style="padding: 3pt 0cm 0cm; border-width: 1pt medium medium; border-style: solid none none; border-color: rgb(181, 196, 223) currentcolor currentcolor;">
<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 12pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"><b>From:
</b>Danny Silver <danny.silver@acadiau.ca><br>
<b>Date: </b>Sunday, 25 February 2024 at 03:13<br>
<b>To: </b>Jeffrey Bowers <J.Bowers@bristol.ac.uk>, Grossberg, Stephen <steve@bu.edu>, KENTRIDGE, ROBERT W. <robert.kentridge@durham.ac.uk>, Gary Marcus <gary.marcus@nyu.edu>, Laurent Mertens <laurent.mertens@kuleuven.be><br>
<b>Cc: </b>connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu <connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu><br>
<b>Subject: </b>Re: Connectionists: Early history of symbolic and neural network approaches to AI</span></p>
</div>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Dear Jeff, Stephen and others … The encoding of a concept or a symbol associated with a concept using a single neuron (grandmother cell) would be a poor
choice both from a representational perspective as well as from a functional perspective for a lifelong learning and reasoning agent. </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">First and foremost, representational redundancy make sense for an agent that can suffer physical damage. Steve’s position in the email below seems to support
this. It also makes sense to encode representation in a distributed fashion for the purposes of new concept consolidation and fine tuning of existing concepts and its variants. This would seem fundamental for a lifelong agent that must learn, unlearn and
relearn many concepts over time using a finite amount of representation (memory).</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><br>
<br>
</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">From a functional perspective an intelligent agent “knows” concepts through the integration of several sensory and motor modalities that provide primary
inputs as well as secondary contextual information. When an intelligent agent thinks of a “cat” it does so in the context of hearing, seeing, chasing, touching, smelling the animal over a variety of experiences. I suspect this is related to Steve’s clarification
of the complexity of what we see happening in the human nervous system when representing a concept.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><br>
<br>
</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Also note that, when you ask a child if the animal in front of her is a “cat” her response verbally or in writing is a complex sequence of motor signals
that are more like a song than a single representation. This is quite different from the simple one-hot encodings output by current ANNs. Such a complex output sequence could be activated by a signal neuron, but that is certainly not a requirement, nor does
a grandmother cell seem likely if the encoding of a concept is based on several sensory modalities that must deal with perceptual variations over time and space. </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><br>
<br>
</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">My question, to those who believe that symbols and the concepts to which they refer are represented in a complex distributed manner, is the following:
Are such representations likely to be static in nature (e.g. a single activation within a small region of an embedding space), or are they likely to be dynamic in nature (e.g. a series of activations within a more complex temporal-spatial manifold of an emedding
space).</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><br>
<br>
</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Danny Silver</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><br>
<br>
</span></p>
<div id="x_ms-outlook-mobile-signature">
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Get
<a href="https://aka.ms/o0ukef" id="OWA1a31c4ba-83fc-737f-5f1a-d04bbe3eb642" class="OWAAutoLink" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-loopstyle="linkonly" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;">
Outlook for iOS</a></span></p>
</div>
<div id="x_mail-editor-reference-message-container">
<div align="center" style="margin: 0cm;">
<hr align="center" size="0" style="width: 100%;">
</div>
<div id="x_divRplyFwdMsg">
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><b>From:</b> Connectionists <connectionists-bounces@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu> on behalf of Jeffrey Bowers <J.Bowers@bristol.ac.uk><br>
<b>Sent:</b> Saturday, February 24, 2024 5:06 PM<br>
<b>To:</b> Grossberg, Stephen <steve@bu.edu>; KENTRIDGE, ROBERT W. <robert.kentridge@durham.ac.uk>; Gary Marcus <gary.marcus@nyu.edu>; Laurent Mertens <laurent.mertens@kuleuven.be><br>
<b>Cc:</b> connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu <connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu><br>
<b>Subject:</b> Re: Connectionists: Early history of symbolic and neural network approaches to AI</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
</div>
<table style="background-color: rgb(253, 245, 167); border-collapse: collapse; border-spacing: 0px; box-sizing: border-box;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0.75pt;">
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; color: black;"><b>CAUTION:
</b>This email comes from outside Acadia. Verify the sender and use caution with any requests, links or attachments.</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">I think this is where terminology is confusing things. I agree that ART (and all
</span><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">other neural architectures) is “far from being a ‘grandmother cell’”. The question is whether a neural architecture includes grandmother cells – that is, a unit high in a hierarchy of units
that is used to classify objects. On distributed systems there is no such unit at any level of a hierarchy – it is patterns of activation all the way up. By contrast, on grandmother cell theories, there is an architecture that does include units that code
for an (abstract) category. Indeed, even all current fashionable DNNs include grandmother cells whenever they use “one hot encoding” of categories (which they almost always do).</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">So, just as grandmother cells can easy be falsified if you define a grandmother cell that only
<b>responds</b> to one category of input, you can falsify a grandmother cells by claiming that it requires only one cell to be active in a network. The classic question was whether simple cells mapped onto complex cells, that mapped onto more complex cells,
that eventually mapped onto singe neurons that code for one category. I’m a big fan of ART models, and in my way of thinking, your models include grandmother cells (other than perhaps your distributed ART model, that I’m not so familiar with – but I’m thinking
that does not include a winner-take-all dynamic).</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Jeff</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<div id="x_mail-editor-reference-message-container">
<div style="padding: 3pt 0cm 0cm; border-width: 1pt medium medium; border-style: solid none none; border-color: rgb(181, 196, 223) currentcolor currentcolor;">
<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 12pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"><b>From:
</b>Grossberg, Stephen <steve@bu.edu><br>
<b>Date: </b>Saturday, 24 February 2024 at 16:46<br>
<b>To: </b>Jeffrey Bowers <J.Bowers@bristol.ac.uk>, KENTRIDGE, ROBERT W. <robert.kentridge@durham.ac.uk>, Gary Marcus <gary.marcus@nyu.edu>, Laurent Mertens <laurent.mertens@kuleuven.be><br>
<b>Cc: </b>connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu <connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu>, Grossberg, Stephen <steve@bu.edu><br>
<b>Subject: </b>Re: Connectionists: Early history of symbolic and neural network approaches to AI</span></p>
</div>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Dear Jeff,</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Thanks for your supportive remark.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">One thing to keep in mind is that, even if a recognition category has a compressed representation using a small, compact
population of cells, a much larger population of cells is needed for that category to work.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">For starters, even a compact category representation is activated by a distributed pattern of activation across the network
of feature-selective cells with which the category resonates via excitatory feedback signals when it is chosen.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">In the case of invariant object categories, a widespread neural architecture is needed to learn it, including modulatory
signals from the dorsal, or Where, cortical stream to the ventral, or What, cortical stream where the category is being learned.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">These modulatory signals are needed to ensure that the invariant object category binds together only views that belong
to that object, and not irrelevant features that may be distributed across the scene.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">These modulatory signals also maintain spatial attention on the invariant category as it is being learned. I call the resonance
that accomplishes this a surface-shroud resonance. I propose that it occurs between cortical areas V4 and PPC and triggers a system-wide resonance at earlier and later cortical areas.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Acting in space on the object that is recognized by the invariant category requires reciprocal What-to-Where stream interactions.
These interactions embody a proposed solution of the Where’s Waldo Problem.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">I have attached a couple of the figures that summarize the ARTSCAN Search architecture that tries to explain and simulate
these interactions.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">This neural architecture is far from being a “grandmother cell”!</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">My Magnum Opus provides a lot more modeling explanations and data about these issues:</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Conscious-Mind-Resonant-Brain-Makes/dp/0190070552" id="OWA42fde952-939d-bf5a-815c-4adc25adf822" class="OWAAutoLink" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-loopstyle="linkonly" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;">https://www.amazon.com/Conscious-Mind-Resonant-Brain-Makes/dp/0190070552</a></span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Best again,</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Steve</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<div id="x_mail-editor-reference-message-container">
<div style="padding: 3pt 0cm 0cm; border-width: 1pt medium medium; border-style: solid none none; border-color: rgb(181, 196, 223) currentcolor currentcolor;">
<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 12pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"><b>From:
</b>Jeffrey Bowers <J.Bowers@bristol.ac.uk><br>
<b>Date: </b>Saturday, February 24, 2024 at 4:38</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"> </span><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;">AM<br>
<b>To: </b>Grossberg, Stephen <steve@bu.edu>, KENTRIDGE, ROBERT W. <robert.kentridge@durham.ac.uk>, Gary Marcus <gary.marcus@nyu.edu>, Laurent Mertens <laurent.mertens@kuleuven.be><br>
<b>Cc: </b>connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu <connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu>, Grossberg, Stephen <steve@bu.edu><br>
<b>Subject: </b>Re: Connectionists: Early history of symbolic and neural network approaches to AI</span></p>
</div>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Dear Steve, I agree, the grandmother cell theory is ill defined, and it is often defined in such a way that it is false. But then people conclude from
that that the brain encodes information in a distributed manner, with each unit (neuron) coding for multiple different things. That conclusion is unjustified. I think your ART models provide an excellent example of one way to implement grandmother cell theories.
ART can learn localist codes where a single unit encodes an object in an abstract way. The Jennifer Aniston neuron results are entirely consistent with your models, even though a given neuron might respond above baseline to other inputs (at least prior to
settling into a resonance). Jeff</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<div id="x_mail-editor-reference-message-container">
<div style="padding: 3pt 0cm 0cm; border-width: 1pt medium medium; border-style: solid none none; border-color: rgb(181, 196, 223) currentcolor currentcolor;">
<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 12pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"><b>From:
</b>Grossberg, Stephen <steve@bu.edu><br>
<b>Date: </b>Friday, 23 February 2024 at 18:12<br>
<b>To: </b>Jeffrey Bowers <J.Bowers@bristol.ac.uk>, KENTRIDGE, ROBERT W. <robert.kentridge@durham.ac.uk>, Gary Marcus <gary.marcus@nyu.edu>, Laurent Mertens <laurent.mertens@kuleuven.be><br>
<b>Cc: </b>connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu <connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu>, Grossberg, Stephen <steve@bu.edu><br>
<b>Subject: </b>Re: Connectionists: Early history of symbolic and neural network approaches to AI</span></p>
</div>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Dear Jeff et al.,</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">The term Grandmother Cell was a good heuristic but, as has been noted in this email thread, is also ill-defined.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">It is known that there are cells in anterior Inferotemporal Cortex (ITa) that may be called invariant object recognition
categories because they respond to a visually perceived object from multiple views, sizes, and positions.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">There are also view-specific categories in posterior Inferotemporal Cortex (ITp) that do not have such broad invariance.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">I list below several of our articles that model how invariant object categories and view-specific categories may be learned.
We also use the modeling results to explain a lot of data.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Just a scan of the article titles illustrates that there has been a lot of work on this topic.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Fazl, A., Grossberg, S., and Mingolla, E. (2009). View-invariant object category learning, recognition, and search: How
spatial and object attention are coordinated using surface-based attentional shrouds.
<i>Cognitive Psychology</i>, <b>58</b>, 1-48. </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"><a href="https://sites.bu.edu/steveg/files/2016/06/FazGroMin2008.pdf" id="OWA62e845d5-1bbc-1c4e-e9bf-b8b035462c1a" class="OWAAutoLink" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-loopstyle="linkonly" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;">https://sites.bu.edu/steveg/files/2016/06/FazGroMin2008.pdf</a></span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Cao, Y., Grossberg, S., and Markowitz, J. (2011). How does the brain rapidly learn and reorganize view- and positionally-invariant
object representations in inferior temporal cortex? <i>Neural Networks</i>, <b>24</b>, 1050-1061.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"><a href="https://sites.bu.edu/steveg/files/2016/06/NN2853.pdf" id="OWA6ba6e842-e273-dbbe-c4b5-94ef37d3bd30" class="OWAAutoLink" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-loopstyle="linkonly" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;">https://sites.bu.edu/steveg/files/2016/06/NN2853.pdf</a></span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Grossberg, S., Markowitz, J., and Cao, Y. (2011). On the road to invariant recognition: Explaining tradeoff and morph properties
of cells in inferotemporal cortex using multiple-scale task-sensitive attentive learning.
<i>Neural Networks</i>, <b>24</b>, 1036-1049.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"><a href="https://sites.bu.edu/steveg/files/2016/06/GroMarCao2011TR.pdf" id="OWA31083ef0-a07f-e650-af59-20e629b9a57d" class="OWAAutoLink" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-loopstyle="linkonly" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;">https://sites.bu.edu/steveg/files/2016/06/GroMarCao2011TR.pdf</a></span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Grossberg, S., Srinivasan, K., and Yazdabakhsh, A. (2011). On the road to invariant object recognition: How cortical area
V2 transforms absolute to relative disparity during 3D vision. <i>Neural Networks</i>,
<b>24</b>, 686-692. </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"><a href="https://sites.bu.edu/steveg/files/2016/06/GroSriYaz2011TR.pdf" id="OWA6965c4e5-4596-47b1-1819-86d028ea49a0" class="OWAAutoLink" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-loopstyle="linkonly" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;">https://sites.bu.edu/steveg/files/2016/06/GroSriYaz2011TR.pdf</a></span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Foley, N.C., Grossberg, S. and Mingolla, E. (2012). Neural dynamics of object-based multifocal visual spatial attention
and priming: Object cueing, useful-field-of-view, and crowding. <i>Cognitive Psychology</i>,
<b>65</b>, 77-117.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"><a href="https://sites.bu.edu/steveg/files/2016/06/FolGroMin2012.pdf" id="OWAc0bb1731-02d9-9147-e82a-66f753e8023d" class="OWAAutoLink" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-loopstyle="linkonly" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;">https://sites.bu.edu/steveg/files/2016/06/FolGroMin2012.pdf</a></span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Grossberg, S., Srinivasan, K., and Yazdanbakhsh, A. (2014). Binocular fusion and invariant category learning due to predictive
remapping during scanning of a depthful scene with eye movements. <i>Frontiers in Psychology: Perception Science,
</i>doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01457</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01457/full" id="OWA26324fa4-215d-9ab0-ccee-dd5c26769440" class="OWAAutoLink" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-loopstyle="linkonly" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;">https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01457/full</a></span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">More articles on related topics can be found on my web page sites.bu.edu/steveg, including how humans can search for an
object at an expected position in space, even though its invariant object category representation cannot be used to do so.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Best,</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Steve</span></p>
<div id="x_mail-editor-reference-message-container">
<div style="padding: 3pt 0cm 0cm; border-width: 1pt medium medium; border-style: solid none none; border-color: rgb(181, 196, 223) currentcolor currentcolor;">
<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 12pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"><b>From:
</b>Connectionists <connectionists-bounces@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu> on behalf of Jeffrey Bowers <J.Bowers@bristol.ac.uk><br>
<b>Date: </b>Thursday, February 22, 2024 at 11:11</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"> </span><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;">AM<br>
<b>To: </b>KENTRIDGE, ROBERT W. <robert.kentridge@durham.ac.uk>, Gary Marcus <gary.marcus@nyu.edu>, Laurent Mertens <laurent.mertens@kuleuven.be><br>
<b>Cc: </b>connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu <connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu><br>
<b>Subject: </b>Re: Connectionists: Early history of symbolic and neural network approaches to AI</span></p>
</div>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Good point, I should not have used simple cells as an example of grandmother cells. In fact, I agree that some sort of population coding is likely supporting
our perception of orientation. For example, simple cells are oriented in steps of about 5 degrees, but we can perceive orientations at a much finer granularity, so it must be a combination of cells driving our perception.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">The other reason I should have not used simple cells is that grandmother cells are a theory about how we identify familiar categories of objects (my grandmother,
or a dog or a cat). Orientation is a continuous dimension where distributed coding may be more suitable. The better example I gave is the word representation DOG in the IA model. The fact that the DOG detector is partly activated by the input CAT does not
falsify the hypothesis that DOG is locally coded. Indeed, it has hand-wired to be localist. In the same way, the fact that a Jennifer Aniston neuron might be weakly activated by another face does not rule out the hypothesis that the neuron selectively codes
for Jennifer Aniston. I agree it is not strong evidence for a grandmother cell – there may be other images that drive the neuron even more, we just don’t know given the limited number of images presented to the patient. But it is interesting that there are
various demonstrations that artificial networks learn grandmother cells under some conditions – when you can test the model on all the familiar categories it has seen. So, I would not rule out grandmother cells out of hand.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Jeff</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<div id="x_mail-editor-reference-message-container">
<div style="padding: 3pt 0cm 0cm; border-width: 1pt medium medium; border-style: solid none none; border-color: rgb(181, 196, 223) currentcolor currentcolor;">
<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 12pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"><b>From:
</b>KENTRIDGE, ROBERT W. <robert.kentridge@durham.ac.uk><br>
<b>Date: </b>Wednesday, 21 February 2024 at 20:56<br>
<b>To: </b>Jeffrey Bowers <J.Bowers@bristol.ac.uk>, Gary Marcus <gary.marcus@nyu.edu>, Laurent Mertens <laurent.mertens@kuleuven.be><br>
<b>Cc: </b>connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu <connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu><br>
<b>Subject: </b>Re: Connectionists: Early history of symbolic and neural network approaches to AI</span></p>
</div>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Again, it is great to be examining the relationship between ‘real’ neural coding and the ins and outs of representation in ANNs. I’m really pleased to
be able to make a few contributions to a list which I’ve lurked on since the late 1980s!</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">I feel I should add an alternative interpretation of orientation coding in primary visual cortex to that so clearly explained by Jeffrey. It is, indeed,
tempting to think of orientation tuned cells as labelled lines or grandmother cells where we read off activity in individual cells as conveying the presence of a line segment with a specific orientation at a particular location in the visual field. As neuroscientists
we can certainly do this. The key question is whether brain areas outside primary visual cortex, which are consumers of information coded in primary visual cortex, also do this. The alternative view of orientation coding is that orientation is represented
by a population code where orientation is represented as the vector sum of orientation preferences in cells with many different orientation tunings, weighted by their levels of activity, and that it is this population code that is read by areas that are consumers
of orientation information. The notion of neural population coding of orientation was first tested electrophysiologically by Georgopoulos in 1982, examining population coding of the direction of arm movements in primary motor cortex. There is more recent psychophysical
evidence that people’s confidence in their judgements of the orientation of a visual stimulus can be predicted on the basis of a population coding scheme (Bays, 2016, A signature of neural coding at human perceptual limits. Journal of Vision,
<a href="https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2552242" id="OWA66d393a1-e711-782d-ad3a-a5080c95ca5d" class="OWAAutoLink" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-loopstyle="linkonly" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;">
https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2552242</a>), where a person’s judgment is indicative of the state of a high level consumer of orientation information.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">So again, I’d err on the side of suggesting that although we can conceive of single neurons in primary visual cortex as encoding information (maybe not
really symbols in this case anyway), it isn’t our ability to interpret things like this that matters, rather, it is the way the rest of the brain interprets information delivered by primary visual cortex.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">cheers,</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Bob</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><img alt="Image result for university of durham logo" id="x_Picture_x0020_12" width="56" height="56" style="width: 0.5937in; height: 0.5937in; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;" src="https://attachments.office.net/owa/mjhealy%40unm.edu/service.svc/s/GetAttachmentThumbnail?id=AAMkADg5ZTRmNDU1LWE0YWItNGQ0ZC1hNThjLTc0OThhNzUzNmI2ZABGAAAAAAAE6M4aBdnYT5qZ6z1SNDlDBwDXiT%2FKh8CBSKolQ3tE3rtPAAAANZZ1AAAXNZFK0A5bQbAegIkXg1MKAAnOYCJdAAABEgAQABBeGFql5dBErEzeYDbnPsw%3D&thumbnailType=2&token=eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsImtpZCI6IkU1RDJGMEY4REE5M0I2NzA5QzQzQTlFOEE2MTQzQzAzRDYyRjlBODAiLCJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJ4NXQiOiI1ZEx3LU5xVHRuQ2NRNm5vcGhROEE5WXZtb0EifQ.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.NTTES2kul5cmISVCVAn1CqRQpMEL6eTWndbdef5S1UsF7VziVhHAASXRRFTLDjjOnka-ha7K7OkbAiV2JXxk_ROHIiDV3KTnx2NKcD_oYtsMJck_GoPH8V8X01nwiTEBXG4UovWHJi-7HkwJEB2DTQnuBxz3OHSRxviJ-PWfbSvV89gF_8aCMNHWtAZ-Pjr61HrMJU0E8NPBISVR8xfIcXhWVL7GiatKzm1zUHIPUhccgliP1DaliVNhVPIjxzdAKzxGDRBQXxUjHjQXJKGa-Vcl4kBESjx8u4WtrgGGjmNL2gN0I1vWWmOQmoDUOcNTMbyvNY9HyBtDNSgMRermIA&X-OWA-CANARY=bdvoVzr6V6EAAAAAAAAAAOBuKcJdNtwYYGNPPTkbsKyWfyN6EFLC8WxhTmnvlSuFWNaskqfmNj8.&owa=outlook.office.com&scriptVer=20240209002.20&clientId=022B93A999C2431F9DB37F0FCA5DB1F7&animation=true">
<img alt="signature_2025328812" id="x_Picture_x0020_11" width="117" height="54" style="width: 1.2291in; height: 0.5729in; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;" src="https://attachments.office.net/owa/mjhealy%40unm.edu/service.svc/s/GetAttachmentThumbnail?id=AAMkADg5ZTRmNDU1LWE0YWItNGQ0ZC1hNThjLTc0OThhNzUzNmI2ZABGAAAAAAAE6M4aBdnYT5qZ6z1SNDlDBwDXiT%2FKh8CBSKolQ3tE3rtPAAAANZZ1AAAXNZFK0A5bQbAegIkXg1MKAAnOYCJdAAABEgAQABU9p9Qpd%2B1HrQisYkbZ9H0%3D&thumbnailType=2&token=eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsImtpZCI6IkU1RDJGMEY4REE5M0I2NzA5QzQzQTlFOEE2MTQzQzAzRDYyRjlBODAiLCJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJ4NXQiOiI1ZEx3LU5xVHRuQ2NRNm5vcGhROEE5WXZtb0EifQ.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.NTTES2kul5cmISVCVAn1CqRQpMEL6eTWndbdef5S1UsF7VziVhHAASXRRFTLDjjOnka-ha7K7OkbAiV2JXxk_ROHIiDV3KTnx2NKcD_oYtsMJck_GoPH8V8X01nwiTEBXG4UovWHJi-7HkwJEB2DTQnuBxz3OHSRxviJ-PWfbSvV89gF_8aCMNHWtAZ-Pjr61HrMJU0E8NPBISVR8xfIcXhWVL7GiatKzm1zUHIPUhccgliP1DaliVNhVPIjxzdAKzxGDRBQXxUjHjQXJKGa-Vcl4kBESjx8u4WtrgGGjmNL2gN0I1vWWmOQmoDUOcNTMbyvNY9HyBtDNSgMRermIA&X-OWA-CANARY=bdvoVzr6V6EAAAAAAAAAAOBuKcJdNtwYYGNPPTkbsKyWfyN6EFLC8WxhTmnvlSuFWNaskqfmNj8.&owa=outlook.office.com&scriptVer=20240209002.20&clientId=022B93A999C2431F9DB37F0FCA5DB1F7&animation=true">
<img alt="signature_824875734" id="x_Picture_x0020_10" width="93" height="54" style="width: 0.9791in; height: 0.5729in; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;" src="https://attachments.office.net/owa/mjhealy%40unm.edu/service.svc/s/GetAttachmentThumbnail?id=AAMkADg5ZTRmNDU1LWE0YWItNGQ0ZC1hNThjLTc0OThhNzUzNmI2ZABGAAAAAAAE6M4aBdnYT5qZ6z1SNDlDBwDXiT%2FKh8CBSKolQ3tE3rtPAAAANZZ1AAAXNZFK0A5bQbAegIkXg1MKAAnOYCJdAAABEgAQABLMUf23a0dHs3k5a7U2Ado%3D&thumbnailType=2&token=eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsImtpZCI6IkU1RDJGMEY4REE5M0I2NzA5QzQzQTlFOEE2MTQzQzAzRDYyRjlBODAiLCJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJ4NXQiOiI1ZEx3LU5xVHRuQ2NRNm5vcGhROEE5WXZtb0EifQ.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.NTTES2kul5cmISVCVAn1CqRQpMEL6eTWndbdef5S1UsF7VziVhHAASXRRFTLDjjOnka-ha7K7OkbAiV2JXxk_ROHIiDV3KTnx2NKcD_oYtsMJck_GoPH8V8X01nwiTEBXG4UovWHJi-7HkwJEB2DTQnuBxz3OHSRxviJ-PWfbSvV89gF_8aCMNHWtAZ-Pjr61HrMJU0E8NPBISVR8xfIcXhWVL7GiatKzm1zUHIPUhccgliP1DaliVNhVPIjxzdAKzxGDRBQXxUjHjQXJKGa-Vcl4kBESjx8u4WtrgGGjmNL2gN0I1vWWmOQmoDUOcNTMbyvNY9HyBtDNSgMRermIA&X-OWA-CANARY=bdvoVzr6V6EAAAAAAAAAAOBuKcJdNtwYYGNPPTkbsKyWfyN6EFLC8WxhTmnvlSuFWNaskqfmNj8.&owa=outlook.office.com&scriptVer=20240209002.20&clientId=022B93A999C2431F9DB37F0FCA5DB1F7&animation=true">
<img alt="Image result for durham cvac" id="x_Picture_x0020_9" width="45" height="55" style="width: 0.4791in; height: 0.5833in; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;" src="https://attachments.office.net/owa/mjhealy%40unm.edu/service.svc/s/GetAttachmentThumbnail?id=AAMkADg5ZTRmNDU1LWE0YWItNGQ0ZC1hNThjLTc0OThhNzUzNmI2ZABGAAAAAAAE6M4aBdnYT5qZ6z1SNDlDBwDXiT%2FKh8CBSKolQ3tE3rtPAAAANZZ1AAAXNZFK0A5bQbAegIkXg1MKAAnOYCJdAAABEgAQAAn2%2F3c3jCBHvFfGXoP9Vpo%3D&thumbnailType=2&token=eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsImtpZCI6IkU1RDJGMEY4REE5M0I2NzA5QzQzQTlFOEE2MTQzQzAzRDYyRjlBODAiLCJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJ4NXQiOiI1ZEx3LU5xVHRuQ2NRNm5vcGhROEE5WXZtb0EifQ.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.NTTES2kul5cmISVCVAn1CqRQpMEL6eTWndbdef5S1UsF7VziVhHAASXRRFTLDjjOnka-ha7K7OkbAiV2JXxk_ROHIiDV3KTnx2NKcD_oYtsMJck_GoPH8V8X01nwiTEBXG4UovWHJi-7HkwJEB2DTQnuBxz3OHSRxviJ-PWfbSvV89gF_8aCMNHWtAZ-Pjr61HrMJU0E8NPBISVR8xfIcXhWVL7GiatKzm1zUHIPUhccgliP1DaliVNhVPIjxzdAKzxGDRBQXxUjHjQXJKGa-Vcl4kBESjx8u4WtrgGGjmNL2gN0I1vWWmOQmoDUOcNTMbyvNY9HyBtDNSgMRermIA&X-OWA-CANARY=bdvoVzr6V6EAAAAAAAAAAOBuKcJdNtwYYGNPPTkbsKyWfyN6EFLC8WxhTmnvlSuFWNaskqfmNj8.&owa=outlook.office.com&scriptVer=20240209002.20&clientId=022B93A999C2431F9DB37F0FCA5DB1F7&animation=true"></span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Professor of Psychology, University of Durham.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Durham PaleoPsychology Group.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Durham Centre for Vision and Visual Cognition.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Durham Centre for Visual Arts and Culture.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><img alt="9k=" id="x_Picture_x0020_8" width="48" height="48" style="width: 0.5104in; height: 0.5104in; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;" src="https://attachments.office.net/owa/mjhealy%40unm.edu/service.svc/s/GetAttachmentThumbnail?id=AAMkADg5ZTRmNDU1LWE0YWItNGQ0ZC1hNThjLTc0OThhNzUzNmI2ZABGAAAAAAAE6M4aBdnYT5qZ6z1SNDlDBwDXiT%2FKh8CBSKolQ3tE3rtPAAAANZZ1AAAXNZFK0A5bQbAegIkXg1MKAAnOYCJdAAABEgAQAHuROi58fQxFo9HEBURtcVg%3D&thumbnailType=2&token=eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsImtpZCI6IkU1RDJGMEY4REE5M0I2NzA5QzQzQTlFOEE2MTQzQzAzRDYyRjlBODAiLCJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJ4NXQiOiI1ZEx3LU5xVHRuQ2NRNm5vcGhROEE5WXZtb0EifQ.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.NTTES2kul5cmISVCVAn1CqRQpMEL6eTWndbdef5S1UsF7VziVhHAASXRRFTLDjjOnka-ha7K7OkbAiV2JXxk_ROHIiDV3KTnx2NKcD_oYtsMJck_GoPH8V8X01nwiTEBXG4UovWHJi-7HkwJEB2DTQnuBxz3OHSRxviJ-PWfbSvV89gF_8aCMNHWtAZ-Pjr61HrMJU0E8NPBISVR8xfIcXhWVL7GiatKzm1zUHIPUhccgliP1DaliVNhVPIjxzdAKzxGDRBQXxUjHjQXJKGa-Vcl4kBESjx8u4WtrgGGjmNL2gN0I1vWWmOQmoDUOcNTMbyvNY9HyBtDNSgMRermIA&X-OWA-CANARY=bdvoVzr6V6EAAAAAAAAAAOBuKcJdNtwYYGNPPTkbsKyWfyN6EFLC8WxhTmnvlSuFWNaskqfmNj8.&owa=outlook.office.com&scriptVer=20240209002.20&clientId=022B93A999C2431F9DB37F0FCA5DB1F7&animation=true"></span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Fellow.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Canadian Institute for Advanced Research,</span></p>
<div style="padding: 0cm 0cm 1pt; border-width: medium medium 1pt; border-style: none none solid; border-color: currentcolor currentcolor windowtext;">
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Brain, Mind & Consciousness Programme.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
</div>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Department of Psychology,</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">University of Durham,</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Durham DH1 3LE, UK.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">p: +44 191 334 3261</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">f: +44 191 334 3434</span></p>
<div style="padding: 0cm 0cm 1pt; border-width: medium medium 1pt; border-style: none none solid; border-color: currentcolor currentcolor windowtext;">
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
</div>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<div id="x_mail-editor-reference-message-container">
<div style="padding: 3pt 0cm 0cm; border-width: 1pt medium medium; border-style: solid none none; border-color: rgb(181, 196, 223) currentcolor currentcolor;">
<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 12pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"><b>From:
</b>Jeffrey Bowers <J.Bowers@bristol.ac.uk><br>
<b>Date: </b>Wednesday, 21 February 2024 at 12:31<br>
<b>To: </b>KENTRIDGE, ROBERT W. <robert.kentridge@durham.ac.uk>, Gary Marcus <gary.marcus@nyu.edu>, Laurent Mertens <laurent.mertens@kuleuven.be><br>
<b>Cc: </b>connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu <connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu><br>
<b>Subject: </b>Re: Connectionists: Early history of symbolic and neural network approaches to AI</span></p>
</div>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; background-color: rgb(255, 254, 207);"><b>[EXTERNAL EMAIL]</b></span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">It is possible to define a grandmother cell in a way that falsifies them. For instance, defining grandmother cells as single neurons that only *respond* to inputs from one category.
Another definition that is more plausible is single neurons that only *represent* one category. In psychology there are “localist” models that have single units that represent one category (e.g., there is a unit in the Interactive Activation Model that codes
for the word DOG). And a feature of localist codes is that they are partly activated by similar inputs. So a DOG detector is partly activated by the input HOG by virtue of sharing two letters. But that partial activation of the DOG unit from HOG is no evidence
against a localist or grandmother cell representation of the word DOG in the IA model. Just as a simple cell of a vertical line is partly activated by a line 5 degrees off vertical – that does not undermine the hypothesis that the simple cell *represents*
vertical lines. I talk about the plausibility of Grandmother cells and discuss the Aniston cells in a paper I wrote sometime back:</p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> </p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; color: rgb(34, 34, 34); background-color: white;">Bowers, J. S. (2009). On the biological plausibility of grandmother cells: implications
for neural network theories in psychology and neuroscience. </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; color: rgb(34, 34, 34);"><i>Psychological review</i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; color: rgb(34, 34, 34); background-color: white;">,
</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; color: rgb(34, 34, 34);"><i>116</i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; color: rgb(34, 34, 34); background-color: white;">(1), 220.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<div id="x_mail-editor-reference-message-container">
<div style="padding: 3pt 0cm 0cm; border-width: 1pt medium medium; border-style: solid none none; border-color: rgb(181, 196, 223) currentcolor currentcolor;">
<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 12pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"><b>From:
</b>Connectionists <connectionists-bounces@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu> on behalf of KENTRIDGE, ROBERT W. <robert.kentridge@durham.ac.uk><br>
<b>Date: </b>Wednesday, 21 February 2024 at 11:48<br>
<b>To: </b>Gary Marcus <gary.marcus@nyu.edu>, Laurent Mertens <laurent.mertens@kuleuven.be><br>
<b>Cc: </b>connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu <connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu><br>
<b>Subject: </b>Re: Connectionists: Early history of symbolic and neural network approaches to AI</span></p>
</div>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">I agree – empirical evidence is just what we need in this super-interesting discussion.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">I should point out a few things about the Quiroga et al 2005 ‘Jennifer Aniston cell’ finding (<i>Nature</i>,
<b>435</b>. 1102 - 1107 ).</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Quiroga et al themselves are at pains to point out that whilst the cells they found responded to a wide variety of depictions of specific individuals they
were not ‘Grandmother cells’ as defined by Jerry Lettvin – that is, specific cells that respond to a broad range of depictions of an individual and *<b>only</b>* of that individual, meaning that one can infer that this individual is being perceived, thought
of, etc. whenever that cell is active.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">The cells Quiroga found do, indeed, respond to remarkably diverse ranges of stimuli depicting individuals, including not just photos in different poses,
at different ages, in different costumes (including Hale Berry as Catwoman for the Hale Berry cell), but also names presented as text (e.g. ‘HALE BERRY’). Quiroga et al only presented stimuli representing a relatively small range of individuals and so it is
unsafe to conclude that the cells they found respond *<b>only</b>* to the specific individuals they found. Indeed, they report that the Jennifer Aniston cell also responded strongly to an image of a different actress, Lisa Kudrow, who appeared in ‘Friends’
along with Jennifer Aniston.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">So, the empirical evidence is still on the side of activity in sets of neurons as representing specific symbols (including those standing for specific
individuals) rather than individual cells standing for specific symbols.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">cheers</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Bob</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><img alt="Image result for university of durham logo" id="x_Picture_x0020_5" width="56" height="56" style="width: 0.5937in; height: 0.5937in; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;" src="https://attachments.office.net/owa/mjhealy%40unm.edu/service.svc/s/GetAttachmentThumbnail?id=AAMkADg5ZTRmNDU1LWE0YWItNGQ0ZC1hNThjLTc0OThhNzUzNmI2ZABGAAAAAAAE6M4aBdnYT5qZ6z1SNDlDBwDXiT%2FKh8CBSKolQ3tE3rtPAAAANZZ1AAAXNZFK0A5bQbAegIkXg1MKAAnOYCJdAAABEgAQABBeGFql5dBErEzeYDbnPsw%3D&thumbnailType=2&token=eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsImtpZCI6IkU1RDJGMEY4REE5M0I2NzA5QzQzQTlFOEE2MTQzQzAzRDYyRjlBODAiLCJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJ4NXQiOiI1ZEx3LU5xVHRuQ2NRNm5vcGhROEE5WXZtb0EifQ.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.NTTES2kul5cmISVCVAn1CqRQpMEL6eTWndbdef5S1UsF7VziVhHAASXRRFTLDjjOnka-ha7K7OkbAiV2JXxk_ROHIiDV3KTnx2NKcD_oYtsMJck_GoPH8V8X01nwiTEBXG4UovWHJi-7HkwJEB2DTQnuBxz3OHSRxviJ-PWfbSvV89gF_8aCMNHWtAZ-Pjr61HrMJU0E8NPBISVR8xfIcXhWVL7GiatKzm1zUHIPUhccgliP1DaliVNhVPIjxzdAKzxGDRBQXxUjHjQXJKGa-Vcl4kBESjx8u4WtrgGGjmNL2gN0I1vWWmOQmoDUOcNTMbyvNY9HyBtDNSgMRermIA&X-OWA-CANARY=bdvoVzr6V6EAAAAAAAAAAOBuKcJdNtwYYGNPPTkbsKyWfyN6EFLC8WxhTmnvlSuFWNaskqfmNj8.&owa=outlook.office.com&scriptVer=20240209002.20&clientId=022B93A999C2431F9DB37F0FCA5DB1F7&animation=true">
<img alt="signature_2975123418" id="x_Picture_x0020_4" width="117" height="54" style="width: 1.2291in; height: 0.5729in; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;" src="https://attachments.office.net/owa/mjhealy%40unm.edu/service.svc/s/GetAttachmentThumbnail?id=AAMkADg5ZTRmNDU1LWE0YWItNGQ0ZC1hNThjLTc0OThhNzUzNmI2ZABGAAAAAAAE6M4aBdnYT5qZ6z1SNDlDBwDXiT%2FKh8CBSKolQ3tE3rtPAAAANZZ1AAAXNZFK0A5bQbAegIkXg1MKAAnOYCJdAAABEgAQABU9p9Qpd%2B1HrQisYkbZ9H0%3D&thumbnailType=2&token=eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsImtpZCI6IkU1RDJGMEY4REE5M0I2NzA5QzQzQTlFOEE2MTQzQzAzRDYyRjlBODAiLCJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJ4NXQiOiI1ZEx3LU5xVHRuQ2NRNm5vcGhROEE5WXZtb0EifQ.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.NTTES2kul5cmISVCVAn1CqRQpMEL6eTWndbdef5S1UsF7VziVhHAASXRRFTLDjjOnka-ha7K7OkbAiV2JXxk_ROHIiDV3KTnx2NKcD_oYtsMJck_GoPH8V8X01nwiTEBXG4UovWHJi-7HkwJEB2DTQnuBxz3OHSRxviJ-PWfbSvV89gF_8aCMNHWtAZ-Pjr61HrMJU0E8NPBISVR8xfIcXhWVL7GiatKzm1zUHIPUhccgliP1DaliVNhVPIjxzdAKzxGDRBQXxUjHjQXJKGa-Vcl4kBESjx8u4WtrgGGjmNL2gN0I1vWWmOQmoDUOcNTMbyvNY9HyBtDNSgMRermIA&X-OWA-CANARY=bdvoVzr6V6EAAAAAAAAAAOBuKcJdNtwYYGNPPTkbsKyWfyN6EFLC8WxhTmnvlSuFWNaskqfmNj8.&owa=outlook.office.com&scriptVer=20240209002.20&clientId=022B93A999C2431F9DB37F0FCA5DB1F7&animation=true">
<img alt="signature_2364801924" id="x_Picture_x0020_3" width="93" height="54" style="width: 0.9791in; height: 0.5729in; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;" src="https://attachments.office.net/owa/mjhealy%40unm.edu/service.svc/s/GetAttachmentThumbnail?id=AAMkADg5ZTRmNDU1LWE0YWItNGQ0ZC1hNThjLTc0OThhNzUzNmI2ZABGAAAAAAAE6M4aBdnYT5qZ6z1SNDlDBwDXiT%2FKh8CBSKolQ3tE3rtPAAAANZZ1AAAXNZFK0A5bQbAegIkXg1MKAAnOYCJdAAABEgAQABLMUf23a0dHs3k5a7U2Ado%3D&thumbnailType=2&token=eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsImtpZCI6IkU1RDJGMEY4REE5M0I2NzA5QzQzQTlFOEE2MTQzQzAzRDYyRjlBODAiLCJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJ4NXQiOiI1ZEx3LU5xVHRuQ2NRNm5vcGhROEE5WXZtb0EifQ.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.NTTES2kul5cmISVCVAn1CqRQpMEL6eTWndbdef5S1UsF7VziVhHAASXRRFTLDjjOnka-ha7K7OkbAiV2JXxk_ROHIiDV3KTnx2NKcD_oYtsMJck_GoPH8V8X01nwiTEBXG4UovWHJi-7HkwJEB2DTQnuBxz3OHSRxviJ-PWfbSvV89gF_8aCMNHWtAZ-Pjr61HrMJU0E8NPBISVR8xfIcXhWVL7GiatKzm1zUHIPUhccgliP1DaliVNhVPIjxzdAKzxGDRBQXxUjHjQXJKGa-Vcl4kBESjx8u4WtrgGGjmNL2gN0I1vWWmOQmoDUOcNTMbyvNY9HyBtDNSgMRermIA&X-OWA-CANARY=bdvoVzr6V6EAAAAAAAAAAOBuKcJdNtwYYGNPPTkbsKyWfyN6EFLC8WxhTmnvlSuFWNaskqfmNj8.&owa=outlook.office.com&scriptVer=20240209002.20&clientId=022B93A999C2431F9DB37F0FCA5DB1F7&animation=true">
<img alt="Image result for durham cvac" id="x_Picture_x0020_2" width="45" height="55" style="width: 0.4791in; height: 0.5833in; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;" src="https://attachments.office.net/owa/mjhealy%40unm.edu/service.svc/s/GetAttachmentThumbnail?id=AAMkADg5ZTRmNDU1LWE0YWItNGQ0ZC1hNThjLTc0OThhNzUzNmI2ZABGAAAAAAAE6M4aBdnYT5qZ6z1SNDlDBwDXiT%2FKh8CBSKolQ3tE3rtPAAAANZZ1AAAXNZFK0A5bQbAegIkXg1MKAAnOYCJdAAABEgAQAAn2%2F3c3jCBHvFfGXoP9Vpo%3D&thumbnailType=2&token=eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsImtpZCI6IkU1RDJGMEY4REE5M0I2NzA5QzQzQTlFOEE2MTQzQzAzRDYyRjlBODAiLCJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJ4NXQiOiI1ZEx3LU5xVHRuQ2NRNm5vcGhROEE5WXZtb0EifQ.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.NTTES2kul5cmISVCVAn1CqRQpMEL6eTWndbdef5S1UsF7VziVhHAASXRRFTLDjjOnka-ha7K7OkbAiV2JXxk_ROHIiDV3KTnx2NKcD_oYtsMJck_GoPH8V8X01nwiTEBXG4UovWHJi-7HkwJEB2DTQnuBxz3OHSRxviJ-PWfbSvV89gF_8aCMNHWtAZ-Pjr61HrMJU0E8NPBISVR8xfIcXhWVL7GiatKzm1zUHIPUhccgliP1DaliVNhVPIjxzdAKzxGDRBQXxUjHjQXJKGa-Vcl4kBESjx8u4WtrgGGjmNL2gN0I1vWWmOQmoDUOcNTMbyvNY9HyBtDNSgMRermIA&X-OWA-CANARY=bdvoVzr6V6EAAAAAAAAAAOBuKcJdNtwYYGNPPTkbsKyWfyN6EFLC8WxhTmnvlSuFWNaskqfmNj8.&owa=outlook.office.com&scriptVer=20240209002.20&clientId=022B93A999C2431F9DB37F0FCA5DB1F7&animation=true"></span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Professor of Psychology, University of Durham.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Durham PaleoPsychology Group.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Durham Centre for Vision and Visual Cognition.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Durham Centre for Visual Arts and Culture.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><img alt="9k=" id="x_Picture_x0020_1" width="48" height="48" style="width: 0.5104in; height: 0.5104in; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;" src="https://attachments.office.net/owa/mjhealy%40unm.edu/service.svc/s/GetAttachmentThumbnail?id=AAMkADg5ZTRmNDU1LWE0YWItNGQ0ZC1hNThjLTc0OThhNzUzNmI2ZABGAAAAAAAE6M4aBdnYT5qZ6z1SNDlDBwDXiT%2FKh8CBSKolQ3tE3rtPAAAANZZ1AAAXNZFK0A5bQbAegIkXg1MKAAnOYCJdAAABEgAQAHuROi58fQxFo9HEBURtcVg%3D&thumbnailType=2&token=eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsImtpZCI6IkU1RDJGMEY4REE5M0I2NzA5QzQzQTlFOEE2MTQzQzAzRDYyRjlBODAiLCJ0eXAiOiJKV1QiLCJ4NXQiOiI1ZEx3LU5xVHRuQ2NRNm5vcGhROEE5WXZtb0EifQ.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.NTTES2kul5cmISVCVAn1CqRQpMEL6eTWndbdef5S1UsF7VziVhHAASXRRFTLDjjOnka-ha7K7OkbAiV2JXxk_ROHIiDV3KTnx2NKcD_oYtsMJck_GoPH8V8X01nwiTEBXG4UovWHJi-7HkwJEB2DTQnuBxz3OHSRxviJ-PWfbSvV89gF_8aCMNHWtAZ-Pjr61HrMJU0E8NPBISVR8xfIcXhWVL7GiatKzm1zUHIPUhccgliP1DaliVNhVPIjxzdAKzxGDRBQXxUjHjQXJKGa-Vcl4kBESjx8u4WtrgGGjmNL2gN0I1vWWmOQmoDUOcNTMbyvNY9HyBtDNSgMRermIA&X-OWA-CANARY=bdvoVzr6V6EAAAAAAAAAAOBuKcJdNtwYYGNPPTkbsKyWfyN6EFLC8WxhTmnvlSuFWNaskqfmNj8.&owa=outlook.office.com&scriptVer=20240209002.20&clientId=022B93A999C2431F9DB37F0FCA5DB1F7&animation=true"></span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Fellow.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Canadian Institute for Advanced Research,</span></p>
<div style="padding: 0cm 0cm 1pt; border-width: medium medium 1pt; border-style: none none solid; border-color: currentcolor currentcolor windowtext;">
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Brain, Mind & Consciousness Programme.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
</div>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Department of Psychology,</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">University of Durham,</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Durham DH1 3LE, UK.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">p: +44 191 334 3261</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">f: +44 191 334 3434</span></p>
<div style="padding: 0cm 0cm 1pt; border-width: medium medium 1pt; border-style: none none solid; border-color: currentcolor currentcolor windowtext;">
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
</div>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<div id="x_mail-editor-reference-message-container">
<div style="padding: 3pt 0cm 0cm; border-width: 1pt medium medium; border-style: solid none none; border-color: rgb(181, 196, 223) currentcolor currentcolor;">
<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 12pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"><b>From:
</b>Connectionists <connectionists-bounces@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu> on behalf of Gary Marcus <gary.marcus@nyu.edu><br>
<b>Date: </b>Wednesday, 21 February 2024 at 05:49<br>
<b>To: </b>Laurent Mertens <laurent.mertens@kuleuven.be><br>
<b>Cc: </b>connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu <connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu><br>
<b>Subject: </b>Re: Connectionists: Early history of symbolic and neural network approaches to AI</span></p>
</div>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; color: black; background-color: rgb(255, 254, 207);"><b>[EXTERNAL EMAIL]</b></span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Deeply disappointing that someone would try to inject actual empirical evidence into this discussion.
</span><span style="font-family: "Apple Color Emoji"; font-size: 11pt;">😂</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 12pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<blockquote style="margin-top: 5pt; margin-bottom: 5pt;">
<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 12pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">On Feb 20, 2024, at 08:41, Laurent Mertens <laurent.mertens@kuleuven.be> wrote:</span></p>
</blockquote>
<blockquote style="margin-top: 5pt; margin-bottom: 5pt;">
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"></span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;">Reacting to your statement:</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;">"However, inside the skull of my brain, there are not any neurons that have a one-to-one correspondence to
the symbol."</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;">What about the Grandmother/Jennifer Aniston/Halle Berry neuron?</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;">(See, e.g.,
</span><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="https://urldefense.proofpoint.com/v2/url?u=https-3A__www.caltech.edu_about_news_single-2Dcell-2Drecognition-2Dhalle-2Dberry-2Dbrain-2Dcell-2D1013&d=DwMFAw&c=slrrB7dE8n7gBJbeO0g-IQ&r=wQR1NePCSj6dOGDD0r6B5Kn1fcNaTMg7tARe7TdEDqQ&m=it3XOFrc2yBru1bmF9dud4UoT60mjmur8mR3zGu365JPKmtWSuFnJTxRJOV4WSpa&s=kh-rqxQw6qcxbM8bhUYTHNaJHN5jtc3SLI5RXC5XgWA&e=" id="OWA4707853a-a4c9-68a4-ae8f-b81992d85953" class="OWAAutoLink" data-auth="NotApplicable" data-loopstyle="linkonly" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;">https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/single-cell-recognition-halle-berry-brain-cell-1013</a></span><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;">)</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"> </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;">KR,</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;">Laurent</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"> </span></p>
<div align="center" style="margin: 0cm;">
<hr align="center" size="0" style="width: 99%;">
</div>
<div id="x_divRplyFwdMsg">
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; color: black;"><b>From:</b> Connectionists <connectionists-bounces@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu> on behalf of Weng, Juyang <weng@msu.edu><br>
<b>Sent:</b> Monday, February 19, 2024 11:11 PM<br>
<b>To:</b> Michael Arbib <arbib@usc.edu>; connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu <connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu><br>
<b>Subject:</b> Re: Connectionists: Early history of symbolic and neural network approaches to AI</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
</div>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;">Dear Michael,</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"> You wrote, "Your brain did not deal with symbols?"</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"> I have my Conscious Learning (DN-3) model that tells me:<br>
My brain "deals with symbols" that are sensed from the extra-body world by the brain's sensors and effecters.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"> However, inside the skull of my brain, there are not any neurons that have a one-to-one correspondence
to the symbol. In this sense, the brain does not have any symbol in the skull.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"> This is my educated hypothesis. The DN-3 brain does not need any symbol inside the skull.</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"> In this sense, almost all neural network models are flawed about the brain, as long as they have a block
diagram where each block corresponds to a function concept in the extra-body world. I am sorry to say that, which may make many enemies. </span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;"> Best regards,</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-family: Aptos, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; color: black;">-John </span></p>
<div align="center" style="margin: 0cm;">
<hr align="center" size="0" style="width: 99%;">
</div>
<div id="x_x_divRplyFwdMsg">
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; color: black;"><b>From:</b> Michael Arbib <arbib@usc.edu><br>
<b>Sent:</b> Monday, February 19, 2024 1:28 PM<br>
<b>To:</b> Weng, Juyang <weng@msu.edu>; connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu <connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu><br>
<b>Subject:</b> RE: Connectionists: Early history of symbolic and neural network approaches to AI</span></p>
<p style="margin: 0cm; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></p>
</div>
<p style="margin: 0cm;">So you believe that, as you wrote out these words, the neural networks in your brain did not deal with symbols?</p>
<p style="margin: 0cm;"> </p>
<div style="padding: 3pt 0cm 0cm; border-width: 1pt medium medium; border-style: solid none none; border-color: rgb(225, 225, 225) currentcolor currentcolor;">
<p style="margin: 0cm;"><b>From:</b> Connectionists <connectionists-bounces@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu>
<b>On Behalf Of </b>Weng, Juyang<br>
<b>Sent:</b> Monday, February 19, 2024 8:07 AM<br>
<b>To:</b> connectionists@mailman.srv.cs.cmu.edu<br>
<b>Subject:</b> Connectionists: Early history of symbolic and neural network approaches to AI</p>
</div>
<p style="margin: 0cm;"> </p>
<p style="margin: 0cm;"><span style="color: black;">I do not agree with </span><span style="color: black; background-color: white;">Newell and Simon</span><span style="color: black;"> if they wrote that. Otherwise, images and video are also symbols. They
probably were not sophisticated enough in 1976 to realize why neural networks in the brain should not contain or deal with symbols.</span></p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 12pt;"> </p>
</blockquote>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>